Law and You > Labour Laws > The Industrial Relations Code, 2020 > Workers’ Combinations: Historical Reasons of Formation
“Workers’ combinations” refers to early forms of labour unions and organized groups created by workers to collectively protect their rights, negotiate for better wages, and improve working conditions. These combinations were responses to the challenges brought on by industrialization, including low wages, long hours, hazardous working environments, and job insecurity.
Workers joined together to negotiate better terms with employers, leveraging their collective power to demand fair wages, reduced work hours, and safe conditions. Many combinations provided support systems for members, such as financial assistance during illness or unemployment, forming an early version of social welfare. Workers’ combinations also aimed to influence legislation, advocating for policies that improved labour rights. Some were involved in strikes, protests, and petitions to make their voices heard at the government level.
Key Reasons for Workers’ Combinations:
The formation of workers’ combinations, or early labour unions, was driven by a mix of economic, social, and political factors that arose alongside industrialization. These reasons reflected the urgent need to address exploitative working conditions and the lack of protections for individual workers. The key reasons that spurred workers to organize and form combinations are as follows:
Economic Insecurity:
- Workers in factories, mines, and other industrial settings often received wages that were insufficient to support themselves or their families, leading to a cycle of poverty. Collective bargaining allowed workers to advocate for fairer pay.
- Employment was highly volatile due to seasonal demand, technological changes, and economic fluctuations. Many workers faced unemployment during economic downturns, and workers’ combinations provided a measure of job security and solidarity.
- By banding together, workers had more negotiating power to seek stable, consistent wages and resist sudden pay cuts imposed by employers.
Harsh Working Conditions:
- Industrial labour often required working up to 16 hours a day, with little to no time off. Early unions pushed for the “eight-hour day” as part of their campaign for humane work hours.
- Factories, mines, and railways were notorious for unsafe conditions, leading to frequent accidents, injuries, and even fatalities. Workers’ combinations enabled workers to collectively demand safer environments and better equipment.
- Child labour was widespread, and women often worked long hours for even lower wages than men. Early unions sought to curb these abuses by demanding age limits for child labour and better working conditions for all.
Lack of Legal and Social Protections:
- During the Industrial Revolution, most nations lacked formal welfare or unemployment systems, leaving workers without financial security in cases of illness, injury, or unemployment.
- Many combinations provided emergency funds for injured or unemployed members, essentially forming an early version of social insurance and mutual aid.
- As the movement grew, workers increasingly campaigned for benefits like pensions and healthcare, especially for those injured or retiring from dangerous jobs.
Job Security and Protection from Exploitation:
- Employers could fire workers at will, often for arbitrary reasons. Workers’ combinations pushed for contractual protections that would prevent sudden job loss or abusive treatment.
- Workers’ combinations formed partly to counteract employers hiring replacement workers during strikes, known as “scabs.” Unified labour was seen as a way to prevent strike-breaking and protect the bargaining power of unions.
Desire for Political Influence and Worker Representation:
- Many early labour unions also functioned as political organizations, fighting for voting rights and labour laws that would protect workers. Workers’ combinations often aimed to influence legislation, working conditions, and social policies.
- The need for a unified voice led many workers to join combinations, as individual complaints were often ignored. By working together, they could press lawmakers to consider labour issues.
- Workers’ combinations lobbied for fundamental labour rights, including the right to strike and collective bargaining, which have become integral to labour laws globally.
Sense of Community and Mutual Support
- Combinations offered a sense of solidarity, bringing workers together to form a shared identity. This camaraderie helped boost morale and sustain the struggle during long and challenging campaigns.
- Combinations often served as support networks during times of personal or family crisis, providing assistance, job information, and housing support.
- With the support of a combination, individual workers felt safer voicing their concerns and participating in strikes without fear of personal retaliation from employers.
These key reasons collectively highlight why workers’ combinations became crucial during the Industrial Revolution. Economic and social injustices made individual workers vulnerable, and only through organized action could they secure rights and improvements to their lives and workplaces. This foundation set the stage for modern labour unions, which continue to advocate for fair wages, safe working conditions, and labour rights.
Historical Development of Workers’ Combinations:
The historical background of workers’ combinations reveals how they arose from the transformations brought about by the Industrial Revolution. As economies shifted from agrarian to industrial, the structure of work changed dramatically, creating conditions that led to the birth of organized labor.
Early Forms of Collective Worker Organization:
Guilds and Trade Societies:
Before the rise of modern industry, medieval and early-modern artisans often organized in guilds. Guilds regulated trade practices, provided training, and protected wages within specific trades. While not unions in the modern sense, these guilds served as a precursor to later labour organizations by offering some form of collective identity and mutual aid.
Craft Societies and Friendly Societies:
These groups emerged as early forms of worker protection and support in times of hardship. By the 18th century, skilled artisans, such as tailors, printers, and shoemakers, had started forming trade-specific societies, providing financial aid to members and regulating employment conditions within specific trades.
The Industrial Revolution and Decline of Traditional Labour Structures:
Shift to Factory-Based Production:
The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a shift from cottage industries and artisanal work to mass production in factories. This created a new working class—factory labourers who worked long hours under poor conditions for low wages, a stark contrast to the independence once enjoyed by artisans.
End of the Guild System:
As industrialization spread, guilds lost power and relevance. Workers could no longer rely on guild protections as traditional craftsmanship declined, making wage labour the primary form of employment. This shift made workers more vulnerable to exploitation, especially as many traditional protective regulations became obsolete.
Rise of Wage Labour:
With little job security or bargaining power, workers began to view collective action as the only way to improve their conditions and protect themselves from employers’ arbitrary decisions.
Emergence of Early Workers’ Combinations in the 18th and 19th Centuries:
British Combination Acts (1799-1800):
In the UK, fear of worker unrest and revolutionary ideas spreading from France led to the passing of the Combination Acts, which criminalized any attempt to form unions or combinations among workers. Despite this, workers continued to organize covertly. The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824, which allowed unions to exist legally, though with many restrictions.
Journeymen’s Societies:
In both Britain and America, journeymen in various trades began organizing into societies to protect their rights. They sought to control apprenticeship, set standard wages, and secure better working conditions. Some of these early combinations, like the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers in the UK, laid the groundwork for more formal labour unions.
The Legal Obstacles and Societal Perceptions of Workers’ Combinations:
Conspiracy Doctrine:
Courts frequently viewed unions as conspiracies in restraint of trade. In the United States, for instance, early cases criminalized collective bargaining on the grounds that it interfered with free trade.
Master and Servant Laws:
In the UK, these laws treated employment contracts as binding property agreements, giving employers the right to prosecute workers who breached their contracts. Even in the U.S., laws similarly discouraged strikes and worker organization by framing labour disputes as criminal acts.
Key Events and Milestones in Early Labour Movements:
The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1834):
Established in Britain by labour reformer Robert Owen, this was one of the first large-scale labour unions aimed at uniting workers across trades. Although it faced legal repression and collapsed within a year, it inspired future labour movements.
Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842):
In the U.S., this landmark Massachusetts Supreme Court decision declared that labour unions were not inherently illegal, challenging the conspiracy doctrine. It was a significant victory that allowed American labour combinations to organize more openly.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834):
In England, six farm labourers from Tolpuddle were arrested and sentenced to deportation to Australia for forming a union. Public outrage and mass protests led to their release, highlighting both the risks of labour organization and the growing public support for workers’ rights.
Growth of National and International Labour Movements:
Trade Union Congress (TUC) in Britain (1868):
The formation of the TUC represented a major step toward uniting various trades into a national body advocating for labour rights. The TUC became a powerful voice for labour legislation, such as the Factory Acts, which regulated working conditions in industries.
Knights of Labour (U.S., 1869):
The Knights of Labour was one of the first major American labour organizations that sought to represent all workers, regardless of trade, race, or gender. They advocated for the eight-hour workday and worker-owned cooperatives, setting the stage for later American labour unions.
International Workingmen’s Association (1864):
Also known as the First International, this organization united workers across Europe and the Americas to promote labour rights on a global scale. Although short-lived, it demonstrated the international scope and solidarity of the labour movement.
Establishment of Legal Recognition and Labor Rights:
Legalization of Unions:
By the late 19th century, many countries began to recognize unions as legitimate organizations. In Britain, the Trade Union Act of 1871 protected unions from being charged with conspiracy, while similar laws were passed in the U.S. and other industrialized nations.
The Right to Strike:
The legal recognition of strikes became a core labour right, allowing workers to protest unfair conditions without fear of legal repercussions. This right, though restricted at times, marked a major victory for the labour movement.
The historical background of workers’ combinations reflects a gradual journey from informal associations of workers to formally recognized unions with legal protections. By uniting in the face of harsh working conditions and oppressive legal frameworks, workers laid the groundwork for modern labour rights, reshaping society’s understanding of workers’ role in the economy and their entitlement to fair treatment and safety. These early movements, while often repressed, fostered a lasting legacy, ultimately transforming industrial society and influencing labour laws globally.
Labour Movements in Various Countries:
The labour movements in Europe have a rich and varied history, deeply connected to the social, economic, and political transformations that began with the Industrial Revolution. European labour movements sought to improve workers’ rights, wages, and working conditions and played a crucial role in shaping modern labor laws and welfare systems across the continent.
The shift from agrarian economies to industrial economies in the late 18th and 19th centuries introduced new factory-based industries in Europe, where workers faced long hours, dangerous conditions, and low wages. This fuelled discontent among the working class, particularly in Britain, France, and Germany. Artisans and craftsmen who once worked independently or in small workshops lost their autonomy in the face of mechanized mass production. Traditional guilds could no longer protect workers’ rights, leading to the rise of new types of labour organizations. Thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels advocated for workers’ rights and inspired political movements aimed at addressing inequalities. Their ideas strongly influenced the labour movement across Europe, connecting worker struggles to broader social and political reform.
United Kingdom:
Britain was one of the first countries to see organized labour movements. The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 initially banned unions, but the Acts were repealed in 1824, marking a significant victory. By 1868, the Trades Union Congress (TUC) was founded, bringing various trade unions together. Although not solely a labour movement, the Chartist movement demanded political reforms, including universal male suffrage and workers’ rights. Chartism provided a platform for working-class activism, leaving a lasting impact on British politics and labour laws. Through persistent campaigning, British labour movements achieved significant legislative reforms, including the Factory Acts (1833 onwards), which limited working hours for women and children and required factory inspections.
France:
The February Revolution of 1848 led to the short-lived establishment of the Second Republic, which brought forward demands for worker rights and the formation of labour workshops for the unemployed. Although these reforms were short-lived, they symbolized the aspirations of French workers for social justice. A revolutionary socialist government briefly controlled Paris and introduced social reforms, including a shorter working day and bans on child labour. Though the Commune was crushed, it became a symbol of working-class resistance and influenced socialist movements across Europe. Formed in 1895, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) became France’s largest labour union and played a crucial role in labour advocacy, strikes, and promoting workers’ rights, emphasizing direct action and solidarity among workers.
Germany:
The German labour movement gained strength in the late 19th century with the rise of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the General German Workers’ Association. Under Bismarck, labour unions were initially restricted, but the SPD and trade unions grew despite the Anti-Socialist Laws (1878–1890). Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced ground breaking social welfare reforms in the 1880s, including sickness insurance, accident insurance, and old-age pensions. This made Germany a pioneer in state welfare systems. After the repeal of the Anti-Socialist Laws, German labour unions became an organized and powerful force. By 1892, the Free Trade Unions (Freie Gewerkschaften) emerged, advocating for improved working conditions and fair wages through collective bargaining.
Russia:
Industrialization arrived later in Russia, but the working conditions were harsh, with long hours, poor wages, and a lack of safety regulations, fuelling worker discontent. Strikes in the early 1900s led to the establishment of workers’ councils, or soviets, which played a key role in the 1905 Revolution. This revolution resulted in some labour reforms, but the struggle continued. The Bolshevik Revolution brought labour issues to the forefront, establishing the first socialist state and placing control of production in workers’ hands. This marked a radical departure from other European labour movements and greatly influenced labour ideologies worldwide.
United States:
Industrialization in the 19th century brought about a significant shift from agrarian to industrial jobs, where workers faced long hours, low wages, and dangerous conditions. These harsh realities led workers to form labour unions to fight for better conditions. One of the first major American labour organizations, the Knights of Labour aimed to include all workers in one large union. They advocated for an eight-hour workday, better wages, and an end to child labour. However, after being associated with the Haymarket Riot in 1886, the Knights lost much of their influence. Founded by Samuel Gompers, the American Federation of Labour (AFL, 1886) focused on skilled workers and specific, achievable goals. The AFL successfully advocated for better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions through collective bargaining.
The Great Depression marked a turning point in labour history. The Wagner Act, also known as the National Labour Relations Act, provided workers with the right to organize and bargain collectively, and it prohibited unfair labour practices by employers. This law led to the rapid growth of labour unions.Fair Labour Standards Act (1938) established a minimum wage, set a 40-hour workweek, and regulated child labour. These measures were monumental victories for the labour movement, shaping the standards for American workers. In the post-World War II era, unions gained power and influence, negotiating strong benefits and wages for workers, especially in manufacturing industries like steel, automotive, and rail.
From the 1970s onward, automation, outsourcing, and a shift toward a service economy led to the decline of traditional manufacturing jobs. This deindustrialization, coupled with an increasingly globalized economy, eroded the strength of labour unions.
India:
The British colonial Indian economy relied heavily on cheap labour in plantations, railways, and mines. Workers faced abysmal conditions, and there were no labour laws to protect them. The first recorded strike in India took place in 1877, with textile workers in Bombay (now Mumbai) protesting poor conditions. The establishment of the Bombay Mill Hands Association in 1890 marked the formal beginning of the labour movement in India. The labour movement was closely linked to the Indian independence movement, as leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar advocated for worker rights. Gandhi helped organize mill workers in Ahmedabad, while Ambedkar worked to uplift the Dalit and marginalized workers. Royal Commission on Labour (1931) investigated labor conditions and recommended reforms, many of which became the basis for post-independence labour laws.
Post-independence, India witnessed rapid industrialization under a mixed economy model. Several new unions emerged, representing different political ideologies and sectors. The Industrial Disputes Act (1947)and theMinimum Wages Act (1948) provided for the settlement of industrial disputes and established minimum wages for certain sectors. These acts laid the foundation for labour rights in independent India.
As India’s first central labour organization, AITUC was founded with the goal of representing workers on a national level. The organization fought for labour rights within the colonial framework and supported the independence movement.
Conclusion:
The formation of workers’ combinations—or labour unions—was historically driven by the need to address severe working conditions, low wages, and exploitative practices that arose with industrialization. The rapid shift to factory-based economies in the 18th and 19th centuries led to long hours, unsafe environments, and lack of job security for workers across Europe, the United States, and beyond. These conditions fostered a shared sense of injustice among workers, prompting them to unite in combinations that would collectively demand fair treatment, wage improvements, and better working conditions.
However, these movements faced significant legal impediments. Governments often perceived organized labour as a threat to economic stability and social order. Early legislation, such as the Combination Acts in the UK, explicitly banned unionization efforts, reflecting widespread fears of civil unrest. Even as laws began to permit unions, restrictive measures such as the Taft-Hartley Act in the U.S. or anti-socialist laws in Germany sought to curtail the influence of labour organizations. Legal challenges were compounded by social and political resistance from powerful industrialists who saw unionization as an attack on their authority and profits.
Despite these obstacles, labour movements persevered, gaining recognition and achieving incremental legal protections. Over time, unions secured significant victories, including the right to collective bargaining, regulated working hours, and minimum wage laws. These gains laid the foundation for modern labour standards. Thus, the historical formation of workers’ combinations highlights a long struggle for equality and justice in labour, demonstrating the persistent power of collective action in the face of legal and political adversity. The evolution of labour laws continues to be a testament to the resilience of the labour movement and its role in advancing workers’ rights globally.