Law and You > Criminal Laws > Criminology > Multiple Factor Theory of Causation of Crime
Criminology is the scientific approach towards studying criminal behaviour. It is an interdisciplinary science which includes sociology, psychology, biology political science etc. There are different school of criminology like classical school, positive school, ecological school etc. Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and explain the world around us. In criminology, they help us to understand the workings of the criminal justice system and the actors in the system. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area (macro), or it can attempt to explain crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro). To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories must make sense (logical consistency), explain as much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as possible (parsimony). Most important, the theory must be true or correct (validity). Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real world applications and policy implications.
Different approaches to crime prevention exist based on interventions, type of activities delivered and the theory behind them. An understanding of the different approaches available and their underlying rationale and theory is also crucial to developing effective crime prevention programs and projects.
Edwin Sutherland pointed out that a school of criminology connotes “the system of thought which consists of an integrated theory of causation of crime and of policies of control implied in the theory of causation”. Therefore, a school of criminology implies the following three important points:
- The adherents of each school try to explain the causation of crime and criminal behaviour in their own way relying on the theory propounded by the exponent of that particular school;
- Each school of criminology suggests punishment and preventive measures to suit its ideology; and,
- Each of the school represents the social attitude of people towards crime and criminal in a given time.
Multiple Factor Theory:
The cause of the crime cannot be attributed to any particular factor. Crime is, committed due to various reasons. Other theories lead us to the different causes of crime. Enrico Ferri classified, the factors of the crime as individual or anthropological, physical or natural and social, the ager sex, civil status, profession, domicile, social rank instruction, education and the organic constitution are the anthropological factors. The race, climate, fertility, meteoric conditions and temperature are the physical factors. The density of population, emigration, public opinion, customs and religion, public order, economic and industrial conditions, agricultural and industrial production, public administration of public safety, public instruction and education, public beneficiaries, and in general, civil and penal legislations are the social factors. Enrico Ferri however said that to these factors we could add many more as it might not be exhaustive list. Thus, despite repeated attempts on the part of criminologists propounding different views to formulate a singular theoretical explanation for criminal behaviour, no hypothesis could answer the issue satisfactorily. Eventually, the sociologists made use of ‘multiple-factor approach’ to explain the causation of crime.
Multiple Factor Approach is a theory which states that there plays a number of factors behind the occurrence of an action. Only a single factor cannot be taken as the only cause of that action. Many scholars have insisted that crime is a product of a large number of factors and that these factors cannot now and perhaps cannot ever, be organized into general propositions which have no exceptions. Crime is as a result of a combination many factors, and is also caused by combination of factors and circumstances. Scholars who believe in this approach are William Healy, Cyril Burt, and Sheldon and Glueck.
Ease in Movability:
Mobility serves as a potential cause of social disorganisation which may result in deviant behaviour due to lack of family control. Migration of persons to new places where they are strangers offers them better opportunities for crime as the chances of detection are considerably minimised. The rapid growth of industrialisation and urbanisation in recent years has led to expansion of means of communication, travel facilities and propagation of views through press and platform. Consequently, human interaction has gone beyond intimate associations with increased chances of mobility. This has helped a person, committing a crime, or having the intention to commit a crime, mix easily with people, giving them an ample opportunity to commit a crime. On top of that the reporting of crimes and the techniques of crime that is being shown in movies and shows has also led to rise in crime rates as criminals get to know new ways of operating.
Biological Factors:
Biological theories of crimes state that whether or not people commit crimes depends on their biological nature. Biological theories of crime assume a person’s biological characteristics predetermine criminal behaviours. The biological characteristics that biological theories of crime claim are associated with criminality could include factors such as genetics, neurology, or physical constitution. These factors affect the way a human being lives. These factors, generally, forms a very significant driving force behind the occurrence of a crime. Biological factors plays a very important role in the determination of the cause of crime. This factor affects the behaviour and functioning of a human being. Biological theories of crime examples include:
- Lombroso’s atavistic form.
- Sheldon’s Soma types.
- Adoption and twin studies.
Economic Factors:
Economic conditions also influence criminality to a considerable extent. It has been generally accepted that there is a strong relationship between criminality and economic or income inequality as also between crime and unemployment. The Marxist theory has emphasised that all human behaviour is determined by economic factors.
Every person wishes to live a life where his basic necessities of life are fulfilled. But inequalities in income lead to one person being rich and one very poor. This problem has been present in the society since the inception of concept of economy came into existence. In developing countries, this problem is more prevalent because of unstable economy which ultimately leads to more inequalities. Under the circumstances, those who lack self-control fall an easy prey to criminality. The employment of women and their other outdoor activities have enhanced the opportunities for sex crime. Again, crimes such as hoarding, undue profiteering, black-marketing, etc., are essentially an outcome of economic changes. In such a system, each person tries to extract maximum from others in return of the minimum from himself.
Unemployment among the youths is yet another cause of increase in crime rate. If the energies of these young persons are properly channelized, they can surely contribute to the national man-power development.
Ecological Factors:
Ecology is the study of people and institutions in relation to environment. Topographical conditions also affect the incidence of crime in a particular region or locality. For instance crimes related to customs will be more in border or coastal areas than in other regions. Similarly criminal activities relating to illegal felling of trees and poaching will be more in forest regions. The proponents of ecological theory attribute social disorganisation as the main cause of criminality.
After a series of researches Enrico Ferri, the eminent Italian criminologist analysed the crime index of his country and concluded that in the same country the crime rate varies considerably from one region to another. Some typical crimes are more peculiar to a particular region than other parts of the country.
The environmental features of a region affects the criminal activities of that region. In India, the impact of ecology on crime is apparently to be seen in dacoit-infested forest regions and ravines of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh where opportunities for escape and detection are plenty. Similarly, pilgrim places of India are the breeding ground for all sorts of anti-social activities such as cheating, stealing, exploiting, etc.
Family Background:
The institution of family is expected to cater to the basic needs of the children. It is through the institution of family that the child unconsciously learns to adjust himself to the environment and accepts the values of life such as respect for others, faithfulness, trustworthiness and co-operation through his own life experiences. Lack of parental control over children due to death, divorce or desertion of parent or their ignorance or illness may furnish soothing ground for the children to resort to criminal acts.
A human being tends to adopt the characteristics of situation in which that person grows up. For instance, a boy who sees his mother being a victim of domestic violence, and it is being normalised in his household, will most probably grow up himself to cause domestic violence. Sutherland holds that out of all the social processes, the family background has perhaps the greatest influence on criminal behaviour of the offender. The reason being that children spend most of their time with their parents and relatives within the family. Children are apt to imbibe criminal tendencies, if they find their parents or members of the family behaving in a similar manner.
Political Factors:
It is well known that the Parliamentarians who are law-makers of the country are also politicians. They succeed in mobilising public opinion in the desired way through the media of press and platform and finally enact suitable laws to support their policies. Thus, political ideologies gain strength through legislative process thereby directly influencing the criminal patterns in a given society. The liberalisation of abortion law, imposition or withdrawal of prohibition laws, anti-dowry, protection of women against domestic violence, prohibition on pre-natal sex-determination, untouchability laws etc. are some of the examples to show as to how the concept of criminality changes with the changed ideologies of the politicians and the government in power.
The excessive interference of politicians in executive functions of the Government weakens the morale of the administrators as well as the police, with the result there is spontaneous growth in crime-rate. Political leaders would tend to maintain their political parties financially sound and at the same time ensure themselves and their families against the uncertainties of future. This led to increasing nexus between politicians and organised criminals. This is followed by political bureaucracy-organised crime nexus. Once politicians get involved, they become vulnerable and there is continuous pressure on them to repeat the process. The ideologies of a political party also lead to rise in criminal activities.
Cultural Factors:
The impact of modernisation, urbanisation and industrialisation in modern dynamic society may sometimes result in social disorganisation and this may lead to culture conflicts between different sections of society. The difference may be between old and new values, local and imported values and traditional values and the government-imposed values.
The inability of local communities to appreciate the common values of their residents or solve commonly experienced problems causes tension leading to deviant behaviours. This is how criminal traditions get embedded into the functioning of a community and they co-exist alongside conventional values. Sutherland has termed this phenomenon as “differential social disorganisation” which is more common with lower-class neighbourhoods. He attributes three main causes for the culture conflict, namely, (1) residential instability; (2) social or ethnic heterogeneity; and (3) poverty.
The incidence of murder, arson, looting, kidnapping and rioting were necessarily an outcome of socio-cultural variations in immigrants who had developed highly individualistic tendencies due to disruption of their family life and loss of status.
Ethnicity forms an integral part of culture of a community and it is often seen that killing of human in the name of ethnic cleansing has been done. The immigration problem which India faced during Indo-Pak partition days in 1947 and Bangladesh partition in 1971 serves as an interesting illustration of cultural conflicts arising out of social disorganisation. The killing of thousands of people in Sri Lanka since 1986 due to ethnic riots and confrontation between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the militant forces of the government is yet another illustration on this point. The Tamilians in the country are fighting against discrimination and are demanding for integration with Sinhalese population.
Religion Factors:
Religion is one of the most sensitive topics and the history of humans has been a witness to wars that started due to religion. The changes in religious ideologies also have a direct bearing on incidence of crime in a particular region. The declining influence of religion in modern times has tended to leave men free to do as they like without any restraint or fear. Consequently, they do not hesitate to resort to criminality even for petty materialistic gains. Despite the fact that all religions speak of communal harmony and peaceful co-existence, most wars on this earth are fought in the name of religion.
The immigration problem which India faced during Indo-Pak partition days in 1947 serves as an interesting illustration of religious conflicts arising out of social disorganisation.
Influence of Media:
Experience has shown that television and films have the maximum impact on the viewers due to combined audio-visual impact. Most of serials or films shown on television or cinema halls depict scenes of violence which adversely affect the viewers, particularly the young boys and girls who often tend to imitate the same in their real-life situations.
The rising incidence of juvenile delinquency is essentially the result of evil effect of violence and vulgarism and undesirable sex exposures depicted in movies or television. Likewise, pornographic literature also has an unwholesome influence on the impressionable minds of the youth which generates criminality among them.
Criticism to Multi Factor Approach:
The multiple-factor approach has been criticised by scholars like Albert Cohen and many others. Cohen mainly gave three arguments against it:
(1) The advocates of multiple-factor approach have confused a single theory with single-factor explanations. A single theory does not necessarily explain crime in terms of a single factor.
Theories are concerned with ‘variables’ and ‘factors’ and a single theory usually incorporates a number of different variables. To explain crime, we need theories which consist of logically related propositions asserting particular relationships among a number of variables.
(2) Cohen objected to a major assumption of the multi-factor approach, namely, that factors have intrinsic crime-producing qualities. Factors found statistically associated with crime are often asserted to cause crime, or to be one cause among others.
Each factor is presumed to carry a fixed amount of criminogenic power. But Cohen argues that not only the factors have no intrinsic crime-producing qualities but also they should not be confused with causes. Causal power cannot be assumed on the basis of a discovery that a certain factor, or combination of factors, shows a statistical association with crime.
(3) Many, if not most, multi-factor studies talk of ‘evil causes’. The fallacious notion is that evil consequences (crime) must have evil precedents (biological pathologies, low IQ, pathological mental states, poor living conditions).
Conclusion:
The Criminologists, as discussed above, use science to describe their theories which help in making their theories more legible. So, they have used this theory to understand the causes of crime. Early theories of criminal behaviour have been criticized because they emphasised a single factor as the cause of crime. Factors like inherited physical traits, biological inferiority, feeble-mindedness, emotional disturbances, or poverty were described as the single cause of crime. Only a single factor cannot be taken as the only cause of crime. The multiple factor theory in criminology grew out of discrepancies in single-factor approach. Its adherents argued that crime should be understood in terms of varied contributions made by a variety of factors. Here the assumption is that crime is the product of many factors biological, psychological, economic and social and those different crimes will be the result of different combinations of factors.