UGC NET > Paper 1 > Higher Education System > Education in Ancient India in Context of Hinduism

The history of education in ancient India is fascinating and is recorded and can be tracked to the ancient era. Travellers from various regions having different climates and cultures visited parts of India from early times. To them, India was a land of wonder! The fame of Indian culture, wealth, religions, philosophies, art, architecture, as well as its educational practices had spread far and wide. The education system of ancient times was regarded as a source for the knowledge, traditions and practices that guided and encouraged humanity. Education in ancient India began around the 3rd century B.C with elements of religious training and impart of traditional knowledge. In this article, we shall discuss education in India.

Education has always been given great prominence in Indian society since the times of the vedic civilization, with gurukul and ashrams being the centers of learning. In ancient India, both formal and informal ways of education system existed. Sages and scholars imparted education orally. Palm leaves and barks of trees were used for writing. The education was imparted at home, in temples, pathshalas, tols, chatuspadis, and gurukuls. There were people in homes, villages, and temples who guided young children in imbibing pious ways of life. Temples were also the centers of learning and took interest in the promotion of knowledge of our ancient system. Students went to viharas and universities for higher knowledge. Teaching was largely oral and students remembered and meditated upon what was taught in the class.

With evolving times, a large number of centers of learning were established across ancient India of which Takshashila and Nalanda are the most famous ones known today.

Objectives of Education in Ancient India:

The objectives of education in ancient India were deeply rooted in spiritual, moral, intellectual, and practical ideals. Unlike modern education, which often focuses on professional skills and employment, ancient Indian education emphasized holistic development—the growth of the mind, body, and soul.

• Self-Realization and Liberation (Moksha): The ultimate goal was to realize the true nature of the self (Atman) and achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death. Education was a means to understand spiritual truths and one’s purpose in life.
• Character Building and Moral Development: Strong emphasis was placed on developing ethics, discipline, truthfulness, self-control, and compassion. Students were taught to live a virtuous and dharmic (righteous) life.
• Intellectual Training: The aim was to develop reasoning, critical thinking, and memory through logic (Nyaya), debate (Shastrartha), and systematic study of texts. Learning focused on deep understanding rather than rote memorization, even though oral transmission was used.
• Preservation and Transmission of Culture: Education ensured the preservation of the Vedas, scriptures, and ancient traditions by passing them from one generation to another. Students were trained in the correct pronunciation, chanting, and interpretation of sacred texts.
• Preparation for Life and Social Duties: Education prepared individuals to fulfill their duties (dharma) according to their stage of life (ashrama) and role in society (varna). It included training in agriculture, warfare, politics, trade, and medicine, depending on one’s caste and profession.
• Promotion of Social Harmony: It was applied through values of non-violence (ahimsa), tolerance, and cooperation, education aimed to create a balanced and peaceful society.
• Holistic Development: Emphasis was on the all-round development of a person: physical (through yoga and martial arts), mental (study and debate), and spiritual (meditation, devotion, and rituals).

Ancient Indian educational system was developed in terms of the needs of the individual and that of the society. It had a definite ideal and a definite mission. The ancient educational centers, situated amidst fauna and flora and beauties of nature were the perennial and inexhaustible fountainheads of Indian civilization and culture. The Vedas, Upanishads, Epics, Sutras, Shrutis and Smrutis were the backbone of the ancient education system. Let us analyse them one by one.

Sources of Education Materials in Ancient India:

The Vedic Period (roughly 1500 BCE to 500 BCE) in ancient India laid the foundational framework for the development of education and higher learning. During this time, education was deeply intertwined with religious, spiritual, and philosophical teachings, primarily rooted in the Vedas, which are the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.

Vedas:

The term “Veda” is derived from VID which means Knowledge, Veda is supposed to be boundless because knowledge is boundless. There are four Vedas, namely Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Vedas are not just spiritual texts but were historically central to the system of higher education in ancient India. The Vedas encompass a wide spectrum of disciplines beyond spiritualism.

• Rigveda  deals with knowledge of hymns, metaphysics, and philosophy.
• Samaveda deals with musicology and chanting. It is considered as the foundation of Indian classical music.
• Yajurveda deals with ritual science and performance. It includes details on rites and sacrifices.
• Atharvaveda deals with medicine, healing, and early science.

These texts reflect a multi-disciplinary educational approach, much like modern liberal arts.

Upanishads:

“Upanishad” means “to sit down near”. It symbolises a student learning from a guru in a close, spiritual setting. They form the final part of the Vedas and are called Vedanta, meaning “end of the Vedas.”. They date back to around 800 BCE – 200 BCE (some what later to Vedas). The Upanishads mark a shift from outer rituals to inner realization. They teach that liberation (moksha) comes from knowing your true self (Atman) as one with the cosmic reality (Brahman).

The purpose of Upanishads was

• To move from ritualistic practices to philosophical inquiry.
• To focus on internal realization, not just external rituals.
• To seek answers to life’s big questions: Who am I? What is the universe? What is the nature of reality?

The major themes of Upanishads were:

• Brahman – The universal, supreme reality or cosmic spirit.
• Atman – The individual soul or inner self.
• Moksha – Liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).
• Karma – Cause and effect of actions.
• Unity of Atman and Brahman – Realizing this unity is the ultimate goal of life.

There are traditionally 108 Upanishads. While there are more than 200 texts that are considered Upanishads, 108 are the most commonly recognized. Among these, 10 are considered the principal Upanishads.  Some of the famous Upanishads are Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashan, Mundaka, Mandukya, Chandogya, Taitreya, Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishads form a core part of higher philosophical education in ancient India. They were taught in ashrams and gurukulas to advanced students. They formed the base of Vedanta philosophy, influencing later thinkers like Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, and Swami Vivekananda.

Puranas:

“Purana” means “ancient” or “old narratives”. They are composed between 300 CE and 1500 CE (oral forms may be older). Traditionally they are said to be authored by Sage Vyasa. There are 18 Mahapuranas and several Upapuranas (minor ones).

Puranas teach values, duties, and dharma through stories and parables. They help in forming ethical foundations in students’ lives. For example, stories of Rama and Krishna instilled ideals of righteousness, loyalty, and truth.

Puranas preserved civilizational memory, lineages of kings, cosmology, and social customs. They functioned like cultural encyclopedias, recording the evolution of society. They gave students a sense of historical identity and pride.

The study included astronomy (jyotisha), medicine, geography, and time cycles (yugas). They provide descriptions of creation, cosmology, and geography (e.g., Jambudvipa) offered early scientific perspectives. They used symbolism and metaphor to explain complex concepts to learners.

Purana integrated Vedantic, Sankhya, and Bhakti philosophies in simple language. They made complex metaphysical ideas accessible to common people and students. They promoted bhakti (devotion) as a path to moksha, parallel to Jnana and Karma. They helped bridge the gap between formal Vedic learning and popular education. They served as supplementary texts in advanced spiritual and philosophical education.

Some of the famous Puranas are Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Markandeya Purana, Agni Purana, Matsya Purana, Garud Purana, Shri Devi Purana, etc.

Dimensions or Forms of Knowledge:

The Vedic system considered two aspects of knowledge namely: Para Vidya and Apara Vidya.

Para Vidya:

It refers to higher or transcendental knowledge and mainly focusses on self-realization, knowledge of Brahman (Supreme Reality). It leads to direct realization of the ultimate truth (Moksha).

Apara Vidya:

It refers to lower or empirical knowledge. Its focus area is external world, i.e.  Vedas, grammar, rituals, logic, astrology, etc. It deals with intellectual, ritualistic, and worldly knowledge. It includes the four Vedas and six Vedangas (phonetics, rituals, grammar, etymology, meter, astronomy). Its purpose is to prepare the mind, purifies it through dharma and discipline. IT cannot lead to liberation (moksha) on its own.

Modes of Transmission of Education in Ancient India:

There two methods for transmission of knowledge and education in the Vedic tradition.

Śruti (Shruti):

It is derived from the Sanskrit root “śru” meaning “to hear.” It refers to divinely revealed knowledge, heard by ancient sages (rishis) during deep meditation. It is considered eternal, authorless (apauruṣeya), and supreme authority in Hindu tradition. It comprises of four Vedas, namely  Rigveda – hymns and praises, Samaveda – chants and music, Yajurveda – rituals and formulas, and Atharvaveda – spells, medicine, daily life. It also includes Brahmanas – ritual texts, Aranyakas – forest treatises (transitional) and Upanishads – philosophical and spiritual knowledge.

The core of this method was that they were memorized and transmitted orally. They were taught in gurukulas with intense discipline, chanting, and repetition. It forms the basis of spiritual education and Vedantic philosophy.

Smṛti (Smriti):

It is derived from the Sanskrit root “smṛ” meaning “to remember.” It refers to human-authored texts, written based on the memory of Śruti. It is secondary to Śruti, but still highly respected and followed. It mainly consists of Dharmaśāstras – Law books (e.g., Manusmṛti), Itihasa consisting of epics: Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, Puranas – Mythology and cosmology, and Sutras & Shastras – Texts on grammar, philosophy, yoga, etc.

Smriti was used for teaching ethics, law, social duties, history, and practical wisdom. It was popular among the masses, not just the scholarly elite. It helped codify and preserve social order, based on the principles in Śruti.

Methods of Learning:

These methods are sequential practices for internalizing and realizing the truth of “Tat Tvam Asi” – You are That (Brahman).

Śravaṇa (Shravana):

Shravana means deep, focused listening to the teachings of the scriptures (Upanishads) and words of the guru. It is not just hearing, but active contemplation while receiving knowledge. In this method students hear about Atman (the Self) and Brahman (Supreme Reality).

Manana:

Manana means logical reflection and critical analysis of what was heard during śravaṇa. Here student questions, understands, and removes doubts using reasoning. This stage strengthens intellectual conviction about the truth.

Nididhyāsana:

It means repeated, deep meditation on the truth understood through śravaṇa and manana. It aims at internalizing the knowledge and living it, not just intellectually but experientially. It leads to Self-realization — the direct, non-dual awareness of “I am Brahman.”

Example to Understand the Flow:

• Śravaṇa: You listen to the guru say, “You are not the body, but the eternal Self.”
• Manana: You think, “If I am not the body, how do I exist? Am I awareness itself?”
• Nididhyāsana: You meditate daily, experiencing stillness, absorbing this truth fully.

Theese three steps are essential in Vedanta for moving from Bookish Knowledge to Convciction and ultimately to Direct realization. Without this process, spiritual knowledge remains intellectual rather than transformational.

Key Features of Higher Education in the Vedic Period:

• Gurukul System: Education was imparted in Gurukuls (residences of teachers or sages), where students (called shishyas) lived with their guru (teacher) and learned through oral tradition. The relationship between guru and shishya was central, and education was considered a sacred duty. Students often underwent a ceremony called Upanayana to mark the beginning of their formal education. Centers like Takshashila and later Nalanda became famous as hubs for advanced learning, although they flourished after the Vedic period, during the post-Vedic and classical periods.
• Curriculum: Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) formed the core of education. Students also studied grammar (Vyakarana), phonetics, astronomy (Jyotisha), mathematics, logic (Nyaya), philosophy (Darshana), medicine (Ayurveda), and ethics (Dharma). Memorization and recitation were key methods due to the oral tradition.
• Higher Learning and Specialization: After basic education, some students pursued higher studies in specialized disciplines such as: Vedanta (philosophy), Mimamsa (ritual interpretation), Nyaya (logic), Samkhya (metaphysics)
• Eligibility and Access: Primarily boys from the Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya castes were allowed formal education. Women and Shudras had limited access, though there were exceptions like Gargi and Maitreyi, who were renowned women scholars.
• Goals of Education: The main aim was character building, spiritual development, and attaining knowledge of the self (Atman). Education was not just for livelihood but for moksha (liberation), dharma (righteousness), and social duties.
• Gurudakshina: Gurudakshina was a traditional offering or gift given by a student (shishya) to their guru (teacher) after completing their education. It was not a fee, but a symbol of gratitude, respect, and duty. It represented the student’s acknowledgment of the guru’s role in their spiritual and intellectual growth. It used to signify closure of the educational journey. It was often seen as a moral obligation, not just a custom.

Branches of Learning (Vedangas and Upavedas):

• Vedic studies include study of Sanhita (mantras and benedictions), Aranyakas (rituals, ceremonies and symbolic sacrifices), Brahmanas (commentaries on Aranyakas), Upanishads (meditations, philosophy and spiritual knowledge), Language (study of Sanskrit).
• To assist in Vedic study, six Vedangas (limbs of the Veda) were developed, forming the foundation of scholarly pursuits: They were Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhandas (meter), Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology).
• There are six system of Hindu Philosophy (Darshanas) namely:  Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimansa and Vedanta.
• The Vedic study also includes the Upavedas (applied knowledge) which include: Ittihas (history), Anvikshi (inquiry/logic), Mimansa (interpretation), Shilpashastra (architecture), Varta (agriculture, trade, commerce, and animal husbandry), Dhanurveda (archery and warfare), Gandharvaveda (music and arts), Sthapatyaveda (engineering), Ayurveda (medicine), Yogasadhana (training mind and body), Shastrartha (learned debates), etc.

This made Vedic education not just spiritual but practically relevant.

Vedic Educational Institutions:

• Gurukuls: They were residential schools where students (shishyas) lived with a teacher (guru). They emphasized discipline, spiritual growth, and personalized learning.
• Parishads: They were assemblies or councils of learned scholars and Brahmins. It discussed and debated philosophy, rituals, grammar, theology, law, and logic. They acted as centers of higher philosophical learning, much like modern think tanks.
• Goshthis: They were small study circles or discussion groups, often informal convened by kings for various schools to debate and discuss ideas. It used for debate, dialogue, and exchange of ideas. They encouraged critical thinking and analytical reasoning.
• Ashramas: They were spiritual hermitages where gurus lived and taught students in natural settings. They combined education, meditation, yoga, and simple living.
• Vidyapeeths: “Vidyapeeth” literally means “seat of learning.” They were larger educational centers or universities (like Nalanda and Takshashila). They offered higher learning in a variety of disciplines, often state-sponsored.
• Ghatikas (South Indian Brahmanical Institutions): They were located near temples (especially in Tamil Nadu). They were specialized in Vedic texts, rituals, Sanskrit, logic, and theology. They supported by kings and local communities.
• Agraharas: They were Brahmin settlements granted by kings with land and income for educational and religious activities. They functioned as academic villages where Brahmins taught students. They often included temples, libraries, and residences for scholars.
• Mathas (Monastic Institutions):  They were established by Hindu philosophers like Adi Shankaracharya. They functioned as centers of Advaita Vedanta philosophy. They still exist today as important religious and educational hubs.
• Brahmapuris: They were communities or neighborhoods where learned Brahmins lived and taught. They acted like residential schools or mini-universities. They found especially in South India, supported by royal patronage.

Conclusion:

The education system during the Vedic period in India was a profound blend of intellectual rigor, spiritual discipline, and moral development. Rooted in the gurukula tradition, it emphasized not just the acquisition of knowledge, but the formation of character. Students lived with their gurus, absorbing teachings through Śravaṇa (listening), Manana (reflection), and Nididhyāsana (meditation) methods that made learning deeply experiential and transformative.

Vedic education was holistic in nature, covering subjects ranging from the Vedas and Vedangas to early sciences such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and linguistics. It also imparted strong ethical values through texts like the Upanishads, which encouraged self-inquiry and realization of the Atman (Self) as part of the Brahman (Universal Consciousness). The concept of Para Vidya (higher knowledge) and Apara Vidya (lower knowledge) demonstrates the balanced pursuit of both material and spiritual education.

What made Vedic education unique was its emphasis on oral transmission, disciplined living, and the sacred guru-shishya bond, which nurtured humility, respect, and a sense of responsibility in the learner. The practice of Gurudakshina reflected gratitude and reinforced the moral duty of the student towards their teacher and society.

Though lacking formal institutions in the modern sense, the Vedic system laid the groundwork for later universities like Nalanda and Takshashila, and influenced educational thought far beyond India’s borders.

In conclusion, Vedic education was not merely about learning texts or performing rituals; it was a lifelong journey of inner growth, societal contribution, and pursuit of truth. Its legacy, rooted in the unity of knowledge and wisdom, continues to inspire educational philosophies around the world today.