Diversity in the area of culture, religion, ethnic, and language is the most characteristic trait of India. This is mostly because of India’s long dated history and to be a home of varying cultures, ethnics, and religions. The historical developments have added to the diversity of India in all areas. In a multilingual society like India, many languages are used in daily life. One language may be preferred in the domains of domestic and friendship groups, another for administration and work, and a third language in religious discourse. Another characteristic of languages in India is that, generally speaking, there is no direct relations between languages and religions and sub cultures. As a mix of various cultures, there is no particular language that can be considered as the dominant one across every state in the country. Thus, India does not have a national language. However, the languages spoken in various regions play an important role in the lives of people—socially and economically. In this article we shall discuss a language as divisive factor.

National Movement and Language:

During the colonisation of India by British in the 18th century, English became a lingua franca and in 1835, it was made official language at both the central and provincial or state levels. However English was not used throughout the entire administrative system. In lower lever administration some regional languages were used. Since Nationalists began to fight against the British Colonisation, the Congress Party the leader of National Movement in India drew attention to languages of the Indians as a sign of national identity. In fact the Congress Party had organised itself on the basis oflinguistic and cultural regions. The leaders of National Movement were very Sensitive about using an indigenous language.

Post Independence Linguistics Policy:

Before independence in 1947, the Congress was committed to redrawing the State boundaries on the basis of languages. In 1920 in Nagpur Session, Congress formally accepted principle of linguistic States. After independence in 1947, however, the Government of India chose not to implement the policy; due to very bad experience of the partition of India on religious grounds.

Discussion in Constituent Assembly:

The Constituent Assembly was concerned with the issue of linguistic states in India. Among the major issues, debated in the Constituent Assembly was the linguistic division of India, something Nehru resisted. Other language-related issues debated in the Constituent Assembly included the national language, official language and its script. The Constituent Assembly, however, could not arrive at the conclusion and finally the matter was left with the Parliament by the virtue of Article 3 of the Constitution of India.

The Constitution of India also contemplates the provision regarding the language policy. But at the time of the constitution-making, the language controversy came to the forefront. The debates of the Constituent Assembly reveal that there was a substantial amount of consensus on two basic points: (1) at some stage, the English language should be displaced from its pre-eminent position; and (2) its place should be taken by Hindi.

In 1948, The Dar Commission was appointed by the government of India under the Chairmanship of S.K. Dar. The Commission did not recommend for the Creation of States on the linguistic consideration. This report created an adverse reaction in Andhra.  The resistance to call for linguistic States was led by the first Union Home Minister, Sardar Patel.  But after the death of Potti sriramulu after 56 day hunger strike for demand the creation of a separate Andhra carved out of the sprawling State of Madras. Government was forced to carve out Andhra Pradesh from the State of Madras.

The Central Government of India constituted the States Reorganization Commission in 1953 under the States Reorganization Act to study the problems in redrawing State boundaries. The Commission consisted of Honourable Fazal Ali, K.M. Panikker and H.N. Kunzru. The Report submitted by the Commission in 1955 known as SRC Report. This Commission viewed language as an important, although by no means the sole factor. Other factors, such as economic viability and geographical realities, had to be taken into account.

Controversy Over Official Language:

The Constitution of India also contemplates the provision regarding the language policy. But at the time of the constitution-making, the language controversy came to the forefront. The debates of the Constituent Assembly reveal that there was a substantial amount of consensus on two basic points: (1) at some stage, the English language should be displaced from its pre-eminent position; and (2) its place should be taken by Hindi.

Mahatma Gandhi and other secular political leader preferred Hindi as national language. Having gained independence from the British in 1947, the leaders of the new Indian nation recognized the opportunity to unite the many regions of India with a common, universal language. Mahatma Gandhi felt that this was essential to the emergence of India as a self-proclaimed nation. He pointed out five requirements for any language to be accepted as the national language:

• It should be easy to learn for government officials.
• It should be capable of serving as a medium of religious, economic, and political intercourse throughout India.
• It should be the speech of the majority of the inhabitants of India.
• It should be easy to learn for the whole of the country.
• In choosing this language, considerations of temporary or passing interests should not count.

The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963 which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965. In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also turned violent. As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.

Language Policy of India

According to Article 343(1) of the Indian Constitution, Hindi and English are the official languages of India. The purpose of using Hindi and English is specified in the Official Languages Act of 1963, the Official Language Rules of 1976, and Ministry of Home Affairs directives. By 2022, the Constitution recognizes a total of 22 languages as official. According to the Indian Constitution, no language has the status of the national language.

Three Language Formula:

With a view to cement national unity and integrity, the National Integration Conference in 1961, examined and discussed the language problem and recommended the adoption of “three language formula” for secondary education all over the country. This formula envisaged the compulsory teaching of three languages in schools, the regional language and English together with Hindi in the non- Hindi speaking States and another modern Indian language and English in the non-Hindi speaking States. So far the three language formula has not been implemented in its letter and spirit.

Constitutional Provisions on Language:

Article 120 Language to be used in Parliament

(1) Notwithstanding anything in Part XVII, but subject to the provisions of article 348 business in Parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or in English:

Provided that the Chairman of the Council of States or Speaker of the House of the People, or person acting as such, as the case may be, may permit any member who cannot adequately express himself in Hindi or in English to address the House in his mother-tongue.

(2) Unless Parliament by law otherwise provides, this article shall, after the expiration of a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, have effect as if the words “or in English” were omitted therefrom.

Article 343 Official language of the Union:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.

(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of

(a) the English language, or

(b) the Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.

Article 344 Commission and Committee of Parliament on Official Language:

(1) The President shall, at the expiration of five years from the commencement of this Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, by order constitute a Commission which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different languages specified in the Eighth Schedule as the President may appoint, and the order shall define the procedure to be followed by the Commission.

(2) It shall be the duty of the Commission to make recommendations to the President as to

(a) the progressive use of the Hindi language for the official purposes of the Union;

(b) restrictions on the use of the English language for all or any of the official purposes of the Union;

(c) the language to be used for all or any of the purposes mentioned in article 348;

(d) the form of numerals to be used for any one or more specified purposes of the Union;

(e) any other matter referred to the Commission by the President as regards the official language of the Union and the language for communication between the Union and a State or between one State and another and their use.

(3) In making their recommendations under clause (2), the Commission shall have due regard to the industrial, cultural and scientific advancement of India, and the just claims and the interests of persons belonging to the nonHindi speaking areas in regard to the public services.

(4) There shall be constituted a Committee consisting of thirty members, of whom twenty shall be members of the House of the People and ten shall be members of the Council of States to be elected respectively by the members of the House of the People and the members of the Council of States in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

(5) It shall be the duty of the Committee to examine the recommendations of the Commission constituted under clause (1) and to report to the President their opinion thereon.

(6) Notwithstanding anything in article 343, the President may, after consideration of the report referred to in clause (5), issue directions in accordance with the whole or any part of that report.

Article 345 Official language or languages of a State

Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the Language or Languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of that State;

Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.

Article 346 Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union

The language for the time being authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be the official language for communication between one State and another State and between a State and the Union:

Provided that if two or more States agree that the Hindi language should be the official language for communication between such States, that language may be used for such communication.

Article 347 Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State

On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language spoken by them to be recognised by that state, direct that such language shall also be officially recognised throughout that State or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify.

Article 348 Language to be Used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc.:

(1) Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, until Parliament by law otherwise provides

(a) all proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court,

(b) the authoritative texts

(i) of all Bills to be introduced or amendments thereto to be moved in either House of Parliament or in the House or either House of the Legislature of a State.

(ii) of all Acts passed by Parliament or the Legislature of a State and of all Ordinances promulgated by the President or the Governor of a State, and

(iii) of all orders, rules, regulations and by-laws issued under this Constitution or under any law made by Parliament or the Legislature of a State, shall be in the English language.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in sub-clause (a) of clause (1), the Governor of a State may, with the previous consent of the President, authorise the use of the Hindi language, or any other language used for any official purposes of the State, in proceedings in the High Court having its principal seat in that State:

Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to any judgment, decree or order passed or made by such High Court.

(3) Notwithstanding anything in sub-clause (b) of clause (1), where the Legislature of a State has prescribed any language other than the English language for use in Bills introduced in, or Acts passed by, the Legislature of the State or in Ordinances promulgated by the Governor of the State or in any order, rule, regulation or by-law referred to in paragraph (iii) of that subclause, a translation of the same in the English language published under the authority of the Governor of the State in the Official Gazette of that State shall be deemed to be the authoritative text thereof in the English language under this article.

Article 349 Special Procedure for Enactment of Certain Laws Relating to Language:

During the period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, no Bill or amendment making provision for the language to be used for any of the purposes mentioned in clause (1) of article 348 shall be introduced or moved in either House of Parliament without the previous sanction of the President, and the President shall not give his sanction to the introduction of any such Bill or the moving of any such amendment except after he has taken into consideration the recommendations of the Commission constituted under clause (1) of article 344 and the report of the Committee constituted under clause (4) of that article.

Article 350 Language to be Used in Representations for Redress of Grievances:

Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be.

Article 350A Facilities for Instruction in Mother-Tongue at Primary Stage:

It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities.

Article 350B Special Officer for lLnguistic Minorities

(1) There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President.

(2) It shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Government of the States concerned.

Article 351 Directive for Development of the Hindi Language:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

Formation of Linguistic States:

The process of linguistic reorganization of states in India was far more prolonged and divisive than the controversy over the official language of India and raised more fundamental questions of centre-state relations.

Following the States Reorganization Act of 1956, the boundaries of the southern states were reorganized in closer conformity with traditional linguistic regions. The bifurcation of Bombay province into the present state of Gujarat and Maharashtra followed in 1960. In 1966, Punjab was reorganized and its several parts distributed among three units: the core Punjabi Suba, the new state of Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. Several new states also have been carved out in response to tribal demands in the North-Eastern region of the country from time to time.

The broad principles enunciated by the State Reorganization Commission in creating linguistic States were the following:

• to preserve the unity and integrity of the country;
• to maintain linguistic and cultural homogeneity; and
• financial, economic and administrative viability

Recommendations of Sarkaria Commission:

In 1983, the Sarkaria Commission was constituted to look in to the language problem in India and suggest measures. The Commission was headed by R.S. Sarkaria. The Commission made the following recommendations:

• Three language formula: It included the implementation of regional language, Hindi and English at the school level education.
• English was to be retained as the official language.
• Reorganisation of states into administrative units.
• Ban on Political parties and other organisations trying to promote Linguism.

Constitutional Provisions for Linguistic Minorities:

The re-organization of states was done on the basis of recognized languages of India and it placed many linguistic groups in a minority position in the States where they resided. This generated a feeling among all linguistic minorities that if they do not have a home state, they are second class citizens and those who get such home states started feeling that they only have the right to live and prosper in their states. Hence some provisions are done in the Constitution to safeguard the interest o9f linguistic minorities.

Article 29 Protection of interests of minorities

(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.

(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.

Article 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions

(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

(1A) In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.

(2) The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.

Growth of Linguism:

The phrase linguistic fanaticism implies, any attempt by a linguistic group or an individual to show disrespect or decry other constitutionality recognized languages or dialects or subjugate, minorities on linguistic basis or preach secessionist movement in the name of language. The re-organization of states was done on the basis of recognized languages of India and it placed many linguistic groups in a minority position in the States where they resided. This generated a feeling among all linguistic minorities that if they do not have a home state, they are second class citizens and those who get such home states started feeling that they only have the right to live and prosper in their states.

Causes of Linguism:

Regionalism:

Linguistic fanatism has promoted local identity. It has created distinctiveness among people. The regional differences have come in the way of national integration. Regionalism is the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose by people within a specific geographical region, united by its unique language, culture etc.

Rise of Regional Parties:

Linguism has resulted in the formation of regional political parties. The regional political parties formed governments in several states and tried to give concrete shape to their policies and programmes. At the present juncture these regional parties are playing a crucial role in the formation of government at the centre and also at some states. Most of these regional parties paly politics of language of their states.

Exploitation of People by Politicians:

Language has evoked psychological and emotional feelings among people. Politicians are promoting the spread of only particular languages through monetary inducements. They exploit the sentiments of people at the time of election.

Erosion of National Feeling:

Linguistic loyalty has come in the way of national integration. People are much concerned about the regional gains, than the interest of the nation. Thus, interstate boundary disputes, river disputes have become common.

Major Events of Linguism:

• In 1937, the first anti-Hindi imposition agitation was launched in opposition to the introduction of compulsory teaching of Hindi by the first Indian National Congress government led by C. Rajagopalachari in the Madras presidency schools. This move was immediately opposed by E. V. Ramasamy (Periyar) and the opposition Justice Party (later Dravidar Kazhagam).
• In 1965 as the day of switching over to Hindi as sole official language approached, the anti-Hindi movement gained momentum in Madras State with increased support from college students. In the same year a full-scale riot broke out in the southern city of Madurai, sparked off by a minor altercation between agitating students and Congress party members. Finally, to calm the situation, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri gave assurances that English would continue to be used as the official language as long as the non-Hindi speaking states wanted.
• Before and around the 1980s, Sanskrit would be available to learn at the high school level in Karnataka, and students chose it as it was a way to gain easy marks, and thus, a higher state rank. Then Chief Minister D Devaraj moved Sanskrit from a first language to a third language. The next Chief Minister, R Gundu Rao reversed this decision. With a committee under Professor VK Gokak, many Kannadigas began to protest against this reversal. The Gokak Committee Report stated for Kannada to be the sole first language. The delay from the State to uphold this led to protests and due to it, several deaths.

Maharashtra Karnataka Border Issue:

When state boundaries were redrawn on linguistic lines as per the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, Belagavi became part of the erstwhile Mysore state. Maharashtra claims that parts of Belagavi, where Marathi is the dominant language, should remain in Maharashtra. In October 1966, the Centre set up the Mahajan Commission, led by former Chief Justice of India Mehr Chand Mahajan, to resolve the border dispute in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala. The Commission recommended that Belgaum and 247 villages remain with Karnataka. Maharashtra rejected the report, and in 2004, moved the Supreme Court. Karnataka has argued that the settlement of boundaries as per the States Reorganisation Act is final. The matter is pending in the Supreme Court.

Conclusion:

India is a multilingual country where linguistic diversity found. Politicisation of languages has been since the independence. People have agitated for long time to get status as a national language. As is seen the official language of India has been a controversial issue. Although Hindi is the de jure official language, English has been a de facto official language in India. This coexistence is due to the historical, cultural, social and political settings of languages in India. Debate on official language is not yet over. Besides, which language should be chosen as the official language, it’s script is also argumentative. For example, some politicians and thinkers have suggested to use Roman script instead of Devnagari for Hindi. In Goa, Konkani and Marathi are official languages but the script is not Devnagari but it is Roman.